![]() Venom is a mixture of proteinaceous toxins exploited for a variety of functions, including prey capture and defence, ultimately resulting in severe pain, incapacitation or death. receptors, ion‐channels, enzymes, and plasma membranes), causing a range of pathophysiological disruptions throughout the cardiovascular, circulatory and nervous systems (Fry et al., 2009 Casewell et al., 2013). They act on specific molecular targets (e.g. Toxins are key innovations that have evolved throughout the tree of life (Yamaguchi, Park & Inouye, 2011 Casewell et al., 2013). Toxin resistance provides a unique and compelling model system for studying the interplay between trophic interactions, selection pressures and the molecular mechanisms underlying evolutionary novelties.Ĭonvergent evolution is the independent emergence of similar traits across different lineages (Storz, 2016). This is often thought to have evolved for self‐protection, but we argue instead that it may be a consequence of poisonous animals feeding on toxic prey. ![]() Convergence may also explain what has been called ‘autoresistance’. As a result, we see a small set of molecular adaptations appearing repeatedly in diverse animal lineages, a phenomenon that is consistent with models of deterministic evolution. ![]() There are relatively few solutions that satisfy this trade‐off. Therefore, there is a trade‐off between maintaining a functional molecular target and reducing toxin susceptibility. However, resistance adaptations may carry a fitness cost if they disrupt the normal physiology of the resistant animal. We explore the evolutionary processes and molecular adaptations driving toxin resistance. Here, we review current knowledge on the convergence of toxin resistance using examples from a wide range of toxin families. In response, molecular resistance has evolved in many species exposed to toxins to counteract their harmful effects. They disrupt molecular and physiological pathways in target species, thereby incapacitating prey or deterring a predator. Toxins have evolved many times throughout the tree of life. ![]() One example is resistance to toxins in animals. Convergence is the phenomenon whereby similar phenotypes evolve independently in different lineages. ![]()
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